1.  Ch’ien / The Creative

above CH’IEN  /  THE CREATIVE, HEAVEN
below CH’IEN  /  THE CREATIVE, HEAVEN

The first hexagram is made up of six unbroken lines.  These unbroken lines stand for the primal power, which is light–giving, active, strong, and of the spirit.  The hexagram is consistently strong in character, and since it is without weakness, its essence is power or energy.  Its image is heaven.  Its energy is represented as unrestricted by any fixed conditions in space and is therefore conceived of as motion.  Time is regarded as the basis of this motion.  Thus the hexagram includes also the power of time and the power of persisting in time, that is, duration.

The power represented by the hexagram is to be interpreted in a dual sense—in terms of its action on the universe and of its action on the world of men.  In relation to the universe, the hexagram expresses the strong, creative action of the Deity.  In relation to the human world, it denotes the creative action of the holy man or sage, of the ruler or leader of men, who through his power awakens and develops their higher nature.

THE JUDGMENT

THE CREATIVE works sublime success,
Furthering through perseverance.

According to the original meaning, the attributes [sublimity, potentiality of success, power to further, perseverance] are paired.  When an individual draws this oracle, it means that success will come to him from the primal depths of the universe and that everything depends upon his seeking his happiness and that of others in one way only, that is, by perseverance in what is right.

The specific meanings of the four attributes became the subject of speculation at an early date.  The Chinese word here rendered by “sublime” means literally “head,” “origin,” “great.”  This is why Confucius says in explaining it: “Great indeed is the generating power of the Creative; all beings owe their beginning to it.  This power permeates all heaven.”  For this attribute inheres in the other three as well.

The beginning of all things lies still in the beyond in the form of ideas that have yet to become real.  But the Creative furthermore has power to lend form to these archetypes of ideas.  This is indicated in the word success, and the process is represented by an image from nature: “The clouds pass and the rain does its work, and all individual beings flow into their forms.”

Applied to the human world, these attributes show the great man the way to notable success: “Because he sees with great clarity causes and effects, he completes the six steps at the right time and mounts toward heaven on them at the right time, as though on six dragons.”  The six steps are the six different positions given in the hexagram, which are represented later by the dragon symbol.  Here it is shown that the way to success lies in apprehending and giving actuality to the way of the universe [tao], which, as a law running through end and beginning, brings about all phenomena in time.  Thus each step attained forthwith becomes a preparation for the next.  Time is no longer a hindrance but the means of making actual what is potential.

The act of creation having found expression in the two attributes sublimity and success, the work of conservation is shown to be a continuous actualization and differentiation of form.  This is expressed in the two terms “furthering” (literally, “creating that which accords with the nature of a given being”) and “persevering” (literally, “correct and firm”).  “The course of the Creative alters and shapes beings until each attains its true, specific nature, then it keeps them in conformity with the Great Harmony.  Thus does it show itself to further through perseverance.”

In relation to the human sphere, this shows how the great man brings peace and security to the world through his activity in creating order: “He towers high above the multitude of beings, and all lands are united in peace.”

Another line of speculation goes still further in separating the words “sublime,” “success,” “furthering,” “perseverance,” and parallels them with the four cardinal virtues in humanity.  To sublimity, which, as the fundamental principle, embraces all the other attributes, it links love.  To the attribute success are linked the mores, which regulate and organize expressions of love and thereby make them successful.  The attribute furthering is correlated with justice, which creates the conditions in which each receives that which accords with his being, that which is due him and which constitutes his happiness.  The attribute perseverance is correlated with wisdom, which discerns the immutable laws of all that happens and can therefore bring about enduring conditions.  These speculations, already broached in the commentary called Wên Yen, later formed the bridge connecting the philosophy of the “five stages (elements) of change,” as laid down in the Book of History (Shu Ching) with the philosophy of the Book of Changes, which is based solely on the polarity of positive and negative principles.  In the course of time this combination of the two systems of thought opened the way for an increasingly intricate number symbolism.

THE IMAGE

The movement of heaven is full of power.
Thus the superior man makes himself strong and untiring.

Since there is only one heaven, the doubling of the trigram Ch’ien, of which heaven is the image, indicates the movement of heaven.  One complete revolution of heaven makes a day, and the repetition of the trigram means that each day is followed by another.  This creates the idea of time.  Since it is the same heaven moving with untiring power, there is also created the idea of duration both in and beyond time, a movement that never stops nor slackens, just as one day follows another in an unending course.  This duration in time is the image of the power inherent in the Creative. 

With this image as a model, the sage learns how best to develop himself so that his influence may endure.  He must make himself strong in every way, by consciously casting out all that is inferior and degrading.  Thus he attains that tirelessness which depends upon consciously limiting the fields of his activity.

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2.   K’un / The Receptive

above K’UN  /  THE RECEPTIVE, EARTH
below K’UN  /  THE RECEPTIVE, EARTH

This hexagram is made up of broken lines only.  The broken line represents the dark, yielding, receptive primal power of yin.  The attribute of the hexagram is devotion; its image is the earth.  It is the perfect complement of THE CREATIVE—the complement, not the opposite, for the Receptive does not combat the Creative but completes it.  It represents nature in contrast to spirit, earth in contrast to heaven, space as against time, the female–maternal as against the male–paternal.  However, as applied to human affairs, the principle of this complementary relationship is found not only in the relation between man and woman, but also in that between prince and minister and between father and son.  Indeed, even in the individual this duality appears in the coexistence of the spiritual world and the world of the senses.

But strictly speaking there is no real dualism here, because there is a clearly defined hierarchic relationship between the two principles.  In itself of course the Receptive is just as important as the Creative, but the attribute of devotion defines the place occupied by this primal power in relation to the Creative.  For the Receptive must be activated and led by the Creative; then it is productive of good.  Only when it abandons this position and tries to stand as an equal side by side with the Creative, does it become evil.  The result then is opposition to and struggle against the Creative, which is productive of evil to both.

THE JUDGMENT

THE RECEPTIVE brings about sublime success,
Furthering through the perseverance of a mare.
If the superior man undertakes something and tries to lead,
He goes astray;
But if he follows, he finds guidance.
It is favorable to find friends in the west and south,
To forego friends in the east and north.
Quiet perseverance brings good fortune.

The four fundamental aspects of the Creative—“sublime success, furthering through perseverance”—are also attributed to the Receptive.  Here, however, the perseverance is more closely defined: it is that of a mare.  The Receptive connotes spatial reality in contrast to the spiritual potentiality of the Creative.  The potential becomes real and the spiritual becomes spatial through a specifically qualifying definition.  Thus the qualification, “of a mare,” is here added to the idea of perseverance.  The horse belongs to earth just as the dragon belongs to heaven.  Its tireless roaming over the plains is taken as a symbol of the vast expanse of the earth.  This is the symbol chosen because the mare combines the strength and swiftness of the horse with the gentleness and devotion of the cow.

Only because nature in its myriad forms corresponds with the myriad impulses of the Creative can it make these impulses real.  Nature’s richness lies in its power to nourish all living things; its greatness lies in its power to give them beauty and splendor.  Thus it prospers all that lives.  It is the Creative that begets things, but they are brought to birth by the Receptive.  Applied to human affairs, therefore, what the hexagram indicates is action in conformity with the situation.  The person in question is not in an independent position, but is acting as an assistant.  This means that he must achieve something.  It is not his task to try to lead—that would only make him lose the way—but to let himself be led.  If he knows how to meet fate with an attitude of acceptance, he is sure to find the right guidance.  The superior man lets himself be guided; he does not go ahead blindly, but learns from the situation what is demanded of him and then follows this intimation from fate.

Since there is something to be accomplished, we need friends and helpers in the hour of toil and effort, once the ideas to be realized are firmly set.  The time of toil and effort is indicated by the west and south, for west and south symbolize the place where the Receptive works for the Creative, as nature does in summer and autumn.  If in that situation one does not mobilize all one’s powers, the work to be accomplished will not be done.  Hence to find friends there means to find guidance.  But in addition to the time of toil and effort, there is also a time of planning, and for this we need this solitude.  The east symbolized the place where a man receives orders from his master, and the north the place where he reports on what he has done.  At that time he must be alone and objective.  In this sacred hour he must do without companions, so that the purity of the moment may not be spoiled by fictional hates and favoritism.

THE IMAGE

The earth’s condition is receptive devotion.
Thus the superior man who has breadth of character
Carries the outer world.

Just as there is only one heaven, so too there is only one earth.  In the hexagram of heaven the doubling of the trigram implies duration in time, but in the hexagram of earth the doubling connotes the solidity and extension in space by virtue of which the earth is able to carry and preserve all things that live and move upon it.  The earth in its devotion carries all things, good and evil, without exception.  In the same way the superior man gives to his character breadth, purity, and sustaining power, so that he is able both to support and to bear with people and things.

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3.  Chun / Difficulty at the Beginning

above K’AN  /  THE ABYSMAL, WATER
below CHÊN  /  THE AROUSING, THUNDER

The name of the hexagram, Chun, really connotes a blade of grass pushing against an obstacle as it sprouts out of the earth—hence the meaning, “difficulty at the beginning.”  The hexagram indicates the way in which heaven and earth bring forth individual beings.  It is their first meeting, which is beset with difficulties.  The lower trigram Chên is the Arousing; its motion is upward and its image is thunder.  The upper trigram K’an stands for the Abysmal, the dangerous.  Its motion is downward and its image is rain.  The situation points to teeming, chaotic profusion; thunder and rain fill the air.  But the chaos clears up.  While the Abysmal sinks, the upward movement eventually passes beyond the danger.  A thunderstorm brings release from tension, and all things breathe freely again.

THE JUDGMENT

DIFFICULTY AT THE BEGINNING works supreme success,
Furthering through perseverance.
Nothing should be undertaken.
It furthers one to appoint helpers.

Times of growth are beset with difficulties.  They resemble a first birth.  But these difficulties arise from the very profusion of all that is struggling to attain form.  Everything is in motion: therefore if one perseveres there is a prospect of great success, in spite of the existing danger.  When it is a man’s fate to undertake such new beginnings, everything is still unformed, dark.  Hence he must hold back, because any premature move might bring disaster.  Likewise, it is very important not to remain alone; in order to overcome the chaos he needs helpers.  This is not to say, however, that he himself should look on passively at what is happening.  He must lend his hand and participate with inspiration and guidance.

THE IMAGE

Clouds and thunder:
The image of DIFFICULTY AT THE BEGINNING.
Thus the superior man
Brings order out of confusion.

Clouds and thunder are represented by definite decorative lines; this means that in the chaos of difficulty at the beginning, order is already implicit.  So too the superior man has to arrange and organize the inchoate profusion of such times of beginning, just as one sorts out silk threads from a knotted tangle and binds them into skeins.  In order to find one’s place in the infinity of being, one must be able both to separate and to unite.

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4.  Mêng / Youthful Folly

above KÊN  /  KEEPING STILL, MOUNTAIN
below K’AN  /  THE ABYSMAL, WATER

In this hexagram we are reminded of youth and folly in two different ways.  The image of the upper trigram, Kên, is the mountain, that of the lower, K’an, is water; the spring rising at the foot of the mountain is the image of inexperienced youth.  Keeping still is the attribute of the upper trigram; that of the lower is the abyss, danger.  Stopping in perplexity on the brink of a dangerous abyss is a symbol of the folly of youth.  However, the two trigrams also show the way of overcoming the follies of youth.  Water is something that of necessity flows on.  When the spring gushes forth, it does not know at first where it will go.  But its steady flow fills up the deep place blocking its progress, and success is attained.

THE JUDGMENT

YOUTHFUL FOLLY has success.
It is not I who seek the young fool;
The young fool seeks me.
At the first oracle I inform him.
If he asks two or three times, it is importunity.
If he importunes, I give him no information.
Perseverance furthers.

In the time of youth, folly is not an evil.  One may succeed in spite of it, provided one finds an experienced teacher and has the right attitude toward him.  This means, first of all, that the youth himself must be conscious of his lack of experience and must seek out the teacher.  Without this modesty and this interest there is no guarantee that he has the necessary receptivity, which should express itself in respectful acceptance of the teacher.  This is the reason why the teacher must wait to be sought out instead of offering himself.  Only thus can the instruction take place at the right time and in the right way.

A teacher’s answer to the question of a pupil ought to be clear and definite like that expected from an oracle; thereupon it ought to be accepted as a key for resolution of doubts and a basis for decision.  If mistrustful or unintelligent questioning is kept up, it serves only to annoy the teacher.  He does well to ignore it in silence, just as the oracle gives one answer only and refuses to be tempted by questions implying doubt.

Given addition a perseverance that never slackens until the points are mastered one by one, real success is sure to follow.  Thus the hexagram counsels the teacher as well as the pupil.

THE IMAGE

A spring wells up at the foot of the mountain:
The image of YOUTH.
Thus the superior man fosters his character
By thoroughness in all that he does.

A spring succeeds in flowing on and escapes stagnation by filling up all the hollow places in its path.  In the same way character is developed by thoroughness that skips nothing but, like water, gradually and steadily fills up all gaps and so flows onward.

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5.  Hsü / Waiting (Nourishment)

above K’AN  /  THE ABYSMAL, WATER
below CH’IEN  /  THE CREATIVE, HEAVEN

All beings have need of nourishment from above.  But the gift of food comes in its own time, and for this one must wait.  This hexagram shows the clouds in the heavens, giving rain to refresh all that grows and to provide mankind with food and drink.  The rain will come in its own time.  We cannot make it come; we have to wait for it.  The idea of waiting is further suggested by the attributes of the two trigrams—strength within, danger in front.  Strength in the face of danger does not plunge ahead but bides its time, whereas weakness in the face of danger grows agitated and has not the patience to wait.

THE JUDGMENT

WAITING.  If you are sincere,
You have light and success.
Perseverance brings good fortune.
It furthers one to cross the great water.

Waiting is not mere empty hoping.  It has the inner certainty of reaching the goal.  Such certainty alone gives that light which leads to success.  This leads to the perseverance that brings good fortune and bestows power to cross the great water.

One is faced with a danger that has to be overcome.  Weakness and impatience can do nothing.  Only a strong man can stand up to his fate, for his inner security enables him to endure to the end.  This strength shows itself in uncompromising truthfulness [with himself].  It is only when we have the courage to face things exactly as they are, without any sort of self–deception or illusion, that a light will develop out of events, by which the path to success may be recognized.  This recognition must be followed by resolute and persevering action.  For only the man who goes to meet his fate resolutely is equipped to deal with it adequately.  Then he will be able to cross the great water—that is to say, he will be capable of making the necessary decision and of surmounting the danger.

THE IMAGE

Clouds rise up to heaven:
The image of WAITING.
Thus the superior man eats and drinks,
Is joyous and of good cheer.

When clouds rise in the sky, it is a sign that it will rain.  There is nothing to do but to wait until after the rain falls.  It is the same in life when destiny is at work.  We should not worry and seek to shape the future by interfering in things before the time is ripe.  We should quietly fortify the body with food and drink and the mind with gladness and good cheer.  Fate comes when it will, and thus we are ready.

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6.  Sung / Conflict

above CH’IEN  /  THE CREATIVE, HEAVEN
below K’AN  /  THE ABYSMAL, WATER

The upper trigram, whose image is heaven, has an upward movement; the lower trigram, water, in accordance with its nature, tends downward.  Thus the two halves move away from each other, giving rise to the idea of conflict.

The attribute of the Creative is strength, that of the Abysmal is danger, guile.  Where cunning has force before it, there is conflict.

A third indication of conflict, in terms of character, is presented by the combination of deep cunning within and fixed determination outwardly.  A person of this character will certainly be quarrelsome.

THE JUDGMENT

CONFLICT.  You are sincere
And are being obstructed.
A cautious halt halfway brings good fortune.
Going through to the end brings misfortune.
It furthers one to see the great man.
It does not further one to cross the great water.

Conflict develops when one feels himself to be in the right and runs into opposition.  If one is not convinced of being in the right, opposition leads to craftiness or high–handed encroachment but not to open conflict.

If a man is entangled in a conflict, his only salvation lies in being so clear–headed and inwardly strong that he is always ready to come to terms by meeting the opponent halfway.  To carry one the conflict to the bitter end has evil effects even when one is the right, because the enmity is then perpetuated.  It is important to see the great man, that is, an impartial man whose authority is great enough to terminate the conflict amicably or assure a just decision.  In times of strife, crossing the great water is to be avoided, that is, dangerous enterprises are not to be begun, because in order to be successful they require concerted unity of forces.  Conflict within weakens the power to conquer danger without.

THE IMAGE

Heaven and water go their opposite ways:
The image of CONFLICT.
Thus in all his transactions the superior man
Carefully considers the beginning.

The image indicates that the causes of conflict are latent in the opposing tendencies of the two trigrams.  Once these opposing tendencies appear, conflict is inevitable.  To avoid it, therefore, everything must be taken carefully into consideration in the very beginning.  If rights and duties are exactly defined, or if, in a group, the spiritual trends of the individuals harmonize, the cause of conflict is removed in advance.

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7.  Shih / The Army

above K’UN  /  THE RECEPTIVE, EARTH
below K’AN  /  THE ABYSMAL, WATER

This hexagram is made up of the trigrams K’an, water, and K’un, earth, and thus it symbolizes the ground water stored up in the earth.  In the same way military strength is stored up in the mass of the people—invisible in times of peace but always ready for use as a source of power.  The attributes of the two trigrams are danger inside and obedience outside.  This points to the nature of an army, which at the core is dangerous while discipline and obedience must prevail outside.

Of the individual lines, the one that controls the hexagram is the strong nine in the second place, to which the other lines, all yielding, are subordinate.  This line indicates a commander, because it stands in the middle of one of the two trigrams.  But since it is in the lower rather than the upper trigram, it represents not the ruler but the efficient general, who maintains obedience in the army by his authority.

THE JUDGMENT

THE ARMY.  The army needs perseverance
And a strong man.
Good fortune without blame.

An army is a mass that needs organization in order to become a fighting force.   Without strict discipline nothing can be accomplished, but this discipline must not be achieved by force.  It requires a strong man who captures the hearts of the people and awakens their enthusiasm.  In order that he may develop his abilities he needs the complete confidence of his ruler, who must entrust him with full responsibility as long as the war lasts.  But war is always a dangerous thing and brings with it destruction and devastation.  Therefore it should not be resorted to rashly but, like a poisonous drug, should be used as a last recourse.

The justifying cause of war, and clear and intelligible war aims, ought to be explained to the people by an experienced leader.  Unless there is a quite definite war aim to which the people can consciously pledge themselves, the unity and strength of conviction that lead to victory will not be forthcoming.  But the leader must also look to it that the passion of war and the delirium of victory do not give rise to unjust acts that will not meet with general approval..  If justice and perseverance are the basis of action, all goes well.

THE IMAGE

In the middle of the earth is water:
The image of THE ARMY.
Thus the superior man increases his masses
By generosity toward the people.

Ground water is invisibly present within the earth.  In the same way the military power of a people is invisibly present in the masses.  When danger threatens, every peasant becomes a soldier; when the war ends, he goes back to his plow.  He who is generous toward the people wins their love, and a people living under a mild rule becomes strong and powerful.  Only a people economically strong can be important in military power.  Such power must therefore be cultivated by improving the economic condition of the people and by humane government.  Only when there is this invisible bond between government and people, so that the people are sheltered by their government as ground water is sheltered by the earth, is it possible to wage a victorious war.

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8.  Pi / Holding Together [Union]

above K’AN  /  THE ABYSMAL, WATER
below K’UN  /  THE RECEPTIVE, EARTH

The waters on the surface of the earth flow together wherever they can, as for example in the ocean, where all the rivers come together.  Symbolically this connotes holding together and the laws that regulate it.  The same idea is suggested by the fact that all the lines of the hexagram except the fifth, the place of the ruler, are yielding.  The yielding lines hold together because they are influenced by a man of strong will in the leading position, a man who is their center of union.  Moreover, this strong and guiding personality in turn holds together with the others, finding in them the complement of his own nature.

THE JUDGMENT

HOLDING TOGETHER brings good fortune.
Inquire of the oracle once again
Whether you possess sublimity, constancy, and perseverance;
Then there is no blame.
Those who are uncertain gradually join.
Whoever comes too late
Meets with misfortune.

What is required is that we unite with others, in order that all may complement and aid one another through holding together.  But such holding together calls for a central figure around whom other persons may unite.  To become a center of influence holding people together is a grave matter and fraught with great responsibility.  It requires greatness of spirit, consistency, and strength.  Therefore let him who wishes to gather others about him ask himself whether he is equal to the undertaking, for anyone attempting the task without a real calling for it only makes confusion worse than if no union at all had taken place.

But when there is a real rallying point, those who at first are hesitant or uncertain gradually come in of their own accord.  Late–comers must suffer the consequences, for in holding together the question of the right time is also important.  Relationships are formed and firmly established according to definite inner laws.  Common experiences strengthen these ties, and he who comes too late to share in these basic experiences must suffer for it if, as a straggler, he finds the door locked.

If a man has recognized the necessity for union and does not feel strong enough to function as the center, it is his duty to become a member of some other organic fellowship.

THE IMAGE

On the earth is water:
The image of HOLDING TOGETHER.
Thus the kings of antiquity
Bestowed the different states as fiefs
And cultivated friendly relations
With the feudal lords.

Water fills up all the empty places on the earth and clings fast to it.  The social organization of ancient China was based on this principle of the holding together of dependents and rulers.  Water flows to unite with water, because all parts of it are subject to the same laws.  So too should human society hold together through a community of interests that allows each individual to feel himself a member of a whole.  The central power of a social organization must see to it that every member finds that his true interest lies in holding together with it, as was the case in the paternal relationship between king and vassals in ancient China.

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9.  Hsiao Ch’u / The Taming Power of the Small

above SUN  /  THE GENTLE, WIND
below CH’IEN  /  THE CREATIVE, HEAVEN

This hexagram means the force of the small—the power of the shadowy—that restrains, tames, impedes.  A weak line in the fourth place, that of the minister, holds the five strong lines in check.  In the Image it is the wind blowing across the sky.  The wind restrains the clouds, the rising breath of the Creative, and makes them grow dense, but as yet is not strong enough to turn them to rain.  The hexagram presents a configuration of circumstances in which a strong element is temporarily held in leash by a weak element.  It is only through gentleness that this can have a successful outcome.

THE JUDGMENT

THE TAMING POWER OF THE SMALL
Has success.
Dense clouds, no rain from our western region.

This image refers to the state of affairs in China at the time when King Wên, who came originally from the west, was in the east at the court of the reigning tyrant Chou Hsin.  The moment for action on a large scale had not yet arrived.  King Wên could only keep the tyrant somewhat in check by friendly persuasion.  Hence the image of many clouds, promising moisture and blessing to the land, although as yet no rain falls.  The situation is not unfavorable; there is a prospect of ultimate success, but there are still obstacles in the way, and we can merely take preparatory measures.  Only through the small means of friendly persuasion can we exert any influence.  The time has not yet come for sweeping measures.  However, we may be able, to a limited extent, to act as a restraining and subduing influence.  To carry out our purpose we need firm determination within and gentleness and adaptability in external relations.

THE IMAGE

The wind drives across heaven:
The image of THE TAMING POWER OF THE SMALL.
Thus the superior man
Refines the outward aspect of his nature.

The wind can indeed drive the clouds together in the sky; yet, being nothing but air, without solid body, it does not produce great or lasting effects.  So also an individual, in times when he can produce no great effect in the outer world, can do nothing except refine the expression of his nature in small ways.

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10.  Lü / Treading [Conduct]

above CH’IEN  /  THE CREATIVE, HEAVEN
below TUI  /  THE JOYOUS, LAKE

The name of the hexagram means on the one hand the right way of conducting oneself.  Heaven, the father, is above, and the lake, the youngest daughter, is below.  This shows the difference between high and low, upon which composure correct social conduct, depends.  On the other hand, the word for the name of the hexagram, TREADING, means literally treading upon something.  The small and cheerful [Tui] treads upon the large and strong [Ch’ien].  The direction of movement of the two primary trigrams is upward.  The fact that the strong treads on the weak is not mentioned in the Book of Changes, because it is taken for granted.  For the weak to take a stand against the strong is not dangerous here, because it happens in good humor [Tui] and without presumption, so that the strong man is not irritated but takes it all in good part.

THE JUDGMENT

TREADING.  Treading upon the tail of the tiger.
It does not bite the man.  Success.

The situation is really difficult.  That which is strongest and that which is weakest are close together.  The weak follows behind the strong and worries it.  The strong, however, acquiesces and does not hurt the weak, because the contact is in good humor and harmless.

In terms of a human situation, one is handling wild, intractable people.  In such a case one’s purpose will be achieved if one behaves with decorum.  Pleasant manners succeed even with irritable people.

THE IMAGE

Heaven above, the lake below:
The image of TREADING.
Thus the superior man discriminates between high and low,
And thereby fortifies the thinking of the people.

Heaven and the lake show a difference of elevation that inheres in the natures of the two, hence no envy arises.  Among mankind also there are necessarily differences of elevation; it is impossible to bring about universal equality.  But it is important that differences in social rank should not be arbitrary and unjust, for if this occurs, envy and class struggle are the inevitable consequences.  If, on the other hand, external differences in rank correspond with differences in inner worth, and if inner worth forms the criterion of external rank, people acquiesce and order reigns in society.

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